Technological innovation has been ingrained in human ethos since time immemorial. From the invention of the wheel to the conquest of fire, from the invention of automobiles to the genesis of the internet, technological inventions have always kindled disruptions and have transformed the way our civilization has conducted, interacted, and flourished over millennia. The complex interplay of technology with the societal and cultural dynamics of diverse regions globally determines the pace of adoption of technology and the magnitude of impact that technology has on the culture and norms of the people in those specific regions. Applications of technology in diverse walks of life influence human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. Despite the diversity in use cases of technology in various sectors, there exist certain commonalities and variations in the manifestation of technological interventions which help to assess the implications of future technological innovations on society and help to draw strategies for ensuring equity in technological developments. The expanding influence of technology across sectors warrants the need to bridge the theoretical underpinnings of anthropology and sociology with practical applications in diverse domains. Several theoretical frameworks that have been employed encompass anthropological perspectives that scrutinize the cultural implications of technology, employing ethnographic methodologies to unravel the complexities of technological impacts. Concurrently, sociological frameworks examine the broader societal dynamics influenced by technology, scrutinizing social structures and inequalities in the adoption of technological advancements.

Technological implications across sectors

In this paper, I explore the impact of technology on the mass media sector, communication sector, religion, and democratic setup. By reflecting on the available literature on these topics, I investigate how technology influences the development of culture and social bonding in each of these sectors.

Implications on the language and media sector

Populations in diverse regions globally possess different spheres of knowledge that influence their actions and behaviors. These behaviors constitute the cultural model that individuals acquire, internalize, and assimilate unconsciously from birth, while the model is expressed in the form of a language (Karakoulas and Theologou, 2023). Since the process of learning through observation and assimilation is a continuous process and is influenced by encounters with other cultural models, language reflecting the ethos of the cultures undergoes alterations (Ibid). Anthropological theory conceptualized culture as a compendium of communicative acts. Communication is the medium through which groups and individuals represent and interact with the world through established normative systems, and technology has played a crucial role in determining the way people think and express themselves in societies (Combi, 2016). Mass media has enabled the homogenization, equilibrium, and elimination of cultural and linguistic disparities across the world (Ibid) as the information travels from a few to many. In contrast, social media and the internet have changed the dynamics of who wields power over the dissemination of information, as it enables a many-to-many exchange of information. However, regardless of the dynamics, social media has also brought a normalization of casual and non-formal language which have been found to strengthen intragenerational social bonds, while posing challenges to intergenerational communication (Natsir et al., 2023). Human civilization has gradually transitioned from paying attention to grammar and linguistic rules to an increased usage of improper abbreviations, excessive uppercase characters, acronyms, and misspelled words for communicating thoughts using minimum characters. The way humans share information, engage socially and form groups in digital platforms have deviated from established language conventions of grammar and spelling (Ibid). Such informal conversations in digital platforms using textual objects (e.g., abbreviations and acronyms) and visual enhancements (e.g., emojis, stickers, and Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) images) can enrich intragenerational communication by offering a diverse range of linguistic expressions while keeping the evolution of language in constant flux. However, despite its ability to communicate feelings among members of the same generation, digital language with grammar and spelling changes has been found to hinder intergenerational communication and professional conversations, leading to deterioration of quality of comprehension among people (Qassrawi and Al Karasneh, 2023). The use of alternate spellings, new words, and abbreviations can impair a person’s ability to effectively convey feelings in a professional setting. Moreover, it can foster discord between the elderly and the young population of a country where cultural sensitivities and courtesy are principal to the way of life. For example, in countries like India and Japan, where family bonding is given high importance and respectful language is a must for talking to elders, digital language and emojis can be considered disrespectful, prone to misinterpretation, provocative, and exclusive in nature for the elders.

In parallel, mass media act as instruments of standardization and gradual homogenization of language. Newspapers and electronic media make a specific set of languages more accessible to people while culling out regional dialects that people could better resonate with (Hjarvard, 2004). The use of a professionally refined version of a language in radio, television, and official communication has led to such homogenization of a particular dialect and form of regional languages that other dialects are seen as low status and having a bad taste (Ibid). The Internet also propagates the homogenization effect as English predominates the language of disseminating information online. While only ___ percent of people speak English globally, nearly ___ percent of websites on the World Wide Web are in English. This influences the language in which people consume and retain knowledge, thereby affecting the relevance and accessibility of traditional and historical knowledge of a culture stored in its vernacular language. Media technology threatens cultural and linguistic uniqueness and diversity. The use of a simplistic and commonly understood dialect or language in the context of technology’s operation inhibits individuals who do not sufficiently master it, and sidelines languages or dialects that are far from it to a similar kind of simplicity (Karakoulas and Theologou, 2023). In addition to the anglicization of media, there exist media-specific dialects over chatrooms, social media, emails, and text messages. This leads to linguistic innovation in the use of English as the lingua franca of meta-communication on these digital media platforms (Hjarvard, 2004). Therefore, technology acts as the vehicle for linguistic creativity which influences the way members of a society interact, which impacts the evolution of a region’s culture.

Influence on health of democracy

New technological progress inevitably cultivates the exclusion of certain groups and countries (Karakoulas and Theologou, 2023) because of the heterogeneous implementation and acceptance of technology in different cultural, political, and economic settings. Despite the expectation of technology fostering collective intelligence globally, the differences in economic, infrastructural, and political capabilities among countries lead to a digital divide between nations. The digital divide creates a new paradigm where tenets of the supremacy of one group (i.e., culture, countries, etc.) over another are based no longer on race, ethnicity, or class, but on digital literacy and technology accessibility. Levy (1999: 223-229) argued that technology can create a direct democracy of the masses only by forming a collective consciousness and encouraging pluralistic discussions by all participants in a democratic setup. However, the inaccessibility of digital technology platforms to the digitally illiterate population and the technologically regressive countries creates an exclusive space only for the expression of the technologically elite communities globally, in a dominant language that does not represent the heterogeneity of the diverse communities worldwide. A technological society not tolerant of heterogeneity, therefore, may not reflect an inclusive cultural understanding and may deter collective self-expression, leading to massification and cultural homogenization, leading possibly to alteration of national identity in such spaces (Karakoulas and Theologou, 2023). The archetypes governing the inclusion and exclusion of communities from society and the social relationships among communities have undergone a change at the hands of technology. Lack of knowledge of information and communication technologies can exacerbate existing socioeconomic inequalities in education and employment, leading to heightened poverty and isolation among the marginalized segments of society. In parallel, it perpetuates the disadvantages to whole new communities, cutting them off from avenues of social, personal, and economic development (López-Aguado et al., 2022) as they cannot access sources of information and opportunities, leading to a rupture of their links with society. The apparent ubiquity of the Internet in diverse sectors, such as education, healthcare, social services, entertainment, and employment implies that only those populations with Internet connectivity can access the latest services, while others are excluded (Molala and Makhubele, 2021). The preference of employers to post jobs online has replaced the traditional practice of publishing job opportunities in newspapers and gazettes, which had higher accessibility to people from impoverished backgrounds with little digital skills. An increasing inclination of employers to conduct virtual interviews, primarily following the COVID-19 pandemic, has also widened the opportunity accessibility gap between people with internet access and knowledge, and people lacking them. Consequently, the digital divide restricts the social mobility of the elderly, disenfranchised, and unemployed (Ibid:197).

The implications of the digital divide can be scaled to countries and international relations. Lévy (1997: 289-293) predicted a possibility of significant technological and economic investments made in certain countries, while leaving out the rest, resulting in a digital imperialism by the technologically advanced countries. This can have ramifications on geopolitics and international relations as few countries may exert technological superiority over the less advantaged countries (Ibid:21-22). The behavior of people from digitally advanced nations can grow averse towards people from disadvantaged nations, affecting the social and political cooperation among countries.

Shaping faith in religion

Religion’s role in shaping the fabric of human societies has been profound for millennia. The influence of religion in molding the collective consciousness of communities transcends beyond cultural, political, and ethical dimensions (Riviș-Tipei, 2023). Religion has been a pillar of societal structures and has offered a moral compass that helped to foster community cohesion and influenced rituals, practices, social norms, and individual behavior. Religion has also been the catalyst for fostering a sense of belonging and shared identity among believers and maintaining order for social stability (Ibid: 114-115). Religious affiliations serve as markers of group identity that influence social interactions, while religious principles have shaped the political landscape in regions run by theocratic governments (Ibid: 115-116).

However, the complexity of religious influence on society has changed throughout history due to its interplay with technology in an increasingly modernistic and pluralistic setting. A shift from theocratic cultures to technology-driven societies reflects the changes in the perceived authority of religious institutions and adaptations to an increasingly interconnected global community (Ibid: 114). It has compelled social and religious communities to address the questions of relevance continuity and adaptation of traditions. Consequently, the styles of worship have changed with the inclusion of technology in religious rituals. Communication technology has profoundly impacted the preaching and propagation of religion globally over millennia. In primitive civilizations, religious teachings were primarily communicated through voice symbols, image symbols, and body gestures, as the medium of information exchange had not advanced beyond oral communication. With the advent of written language, religious teachings could be preserved over a longer time, leading to the codification of religion. However, written manuscripts could not be produced in bulk initially, thereby limiting the reach of written religious teaching to the privileged few (Zhao, 2019). Technology transformed religion with the emergence of the printing press as printed books democratized access to religious virtues and reduced the dependency on clergies to communicate God’s word (Ibid). Books rapidly became a tool for religious propaganda, with the advantages of accurate expression, convenient retrieval, repeated use, low cost, easy preservation, and mass production. However, the authority to decide what could get printed in religious communication became centralized with the publishers.

Electronic communication since the 1920s has ushered in an era of religious pluralism and secularization of religious beliefs. In the 1940s, a famous missionary Charles Fuller hosted religious programs on the radio, where people could listen to his sermons. A Roman Catholic priest, Fulton Sin, began hosting mass on television in 1952. Finally, the internet opened the avenues for religious education to everyone globally and has facilitated the development of network religion, leading to the proliferation of religious organizations and information exchange among devotees transcending geographical barriers (Zhao, 2019). Bingaman (2023) found an increase in the live streaming of Sunday worship services on Zoom during the COVID-19 pandemic and found that most of those churches were inclined to continue the live streaming option on YouTube despite having resumed in-person worship by 2023. The practice of communion inside churches getting replaced by online communions has increased the accessibility to the church for those who were excluded from church life (Bingaman, 2023). Digital evangelism has impacted the manner of dissemination of religious information, as sacred texts and teachings are more readily available around the clock to devotees in the form of podcasts, videos, and e-books, thereby making religious learning self-paced (Opade, 2023). Digital evangelism also manifests through the instant sharing of religious videos and audio by people within their network, leading to a wider reach of religious sermons and wisdom to people from other religious affiliations.

Digital technology has also been a driver of religious disaffiliation among the digital native youth and millennials. The growing distance of the digital native population from spirituality and religion can pose a significant challenge for religious faith communities, as the people drawn to online spirituality are typically averse to authority and tend to choose their own values, symbols, and associations to construct their unique identity (Ibid). Baylor University’s Religion Survey in 2010 study found frequent internet use to be associated with an increase in the tendency to be religiously disaffiliated (McClure 2017, p. 481) and the likelihood of maintaining an exclusivist posture towards one’s religion (McClure 2017, p. 494). Bingaman (2023) reported that younger Americans were disaffiliating from their formative religions at an earlier age compared to older Americans. Among young adults (aged 18 to 29), approximately 74 percent report disaffiliated at or before the age of 17, with 26 percent indicating they left their religion prior to their teenage years. In contrast, older Americans who had disaffiliated more commonly did so during college age or later. This generational difference highlights a shift in the age at which individuals are choosing to leave their formative religious affiliations. This reflects an openness toward the multiplicity of diverse religious and spiritual beliefs and suggests that digital natives are more predisposed to tinkering with an assortment of religious options while rejecting exclusive truth claims of their religion acquired by birth.

Intersection with education

Learning is an integral part of human existence and allows students and teachers to convene at a place for the institutional learning process. Over millennia, schools – in ancient, medieval, and existing forms – have been centers of assembly for learners to acquire knowledge as much from books and teachers as from peers. From the ‘Gurukul’ system of ancient India to the ‘ludus litterarius’ of Rome, education required gathering at a particular location to receive edification and bond with other students. Social bonding in schools during the formative years of life is a crucial aspect of personality development. Bryan et al. (2012) found school bonding to have significant effects on academic achievement, while extracurricular activities and club involvement positively affected the academic scores of students. The study also found social bonds developed in schools to increase a student’s ability to overcome life’s challenges and achieve academic success. A caring school climate, sense of safety, and school boundaries deterred school dropouts, risky health behaviors, and delinquency (Ibid).

However, with the emergence of online learning, owing to the growth of education technology (or EdTech), computer-mediated communication has enabled students to converge in a virtual space from the comfort of their homes. Such an arrangement facilitated by internet technology allows teachers and students to save time in commuting to school and enables flexibility in teaching techniques, the faculty may not realize the significance of social context and cultural competence in online learning platforms (Kwon et al., 2010). The faculty may overlook the cultural and social issues embedded in the virtual classroom that affect the way students learn and feel emotionally safe. Since communication is restricted to computer technology in a virtual learning environment, students may hardly convey their emotions and expressions (Ibid). Self-paced courses that do not require assembly of students in real-time face additional drawbacks in this regard. The asynchronous nature of self-paced online courses also lacks an immediacy of response for successful social interaction, which limits the scope of intimacy development among students and educators (Ibid). A dearth of interactivities and social cues can cause students to feel isolated, which goes contrary to the feeling of a community that in-person attendance in physical classrooms can create. Hrastinski (2008, p. 53) found that students in online distance learning programs facilitated by internet technology felt more disposed towards asynchronous environments only for deeper cognitive engagement, while synchronous learning environments were preferred for social engagement, which was corroborated by Falloon (2012). Falloon (2012) found the visual and oral communication made possible by the classrooms promoted a sense of shared responsibility and commitment towards others in the learning group and made learners feel obligated to help their fellow students.

The attitude of teachers and students towards each other was conventionally of mutual respect in the traditional learning setup. However, with the growing adoption of virtual classrooms, the principles of parliamentary behavior appear to be affected.

Student misbehaviors threaten the effectiveness of virtual classrooms and interrupt the smooth functioning of learning programs. High rates of absenteeism, lack of participation (Baysal, 2021), and impolite conflicts with teachers on virtual platforms can disrupt the dignity of a teacher-student relationship. As imposing discipline in a virtual environment is challenging, misbehavior such as making noise, distractibility, loss of concentration, indifference towards the instructor, and slanging have been observed (Ibid). The option to go invisible by turning off the webcam and avoiding virtual eye contact can perpetuate a negative cycle that involves other learners in misbehavior. A negative reaction by the teacher and the consequent escalation of conflict can also initiate chaos in the virtual classroom, thereby disrupting the social bonds that students form among themselves. The inclusion of technology in the field of education has deteriorated the sense of community in virtual schools, despite conferring diverse advantages such as digitization of learning programmes for remote access by students.

Shaping social interaction

Humans are known as social animals because social relations are fundamental to human nature and well-being. However, because of changing demographics and technology, social relations have grown complicated. Technology influences how people maintain, increase, decrease, or avoid social contact and relationships. While technology helps to overcome traditional barriers to maintaining social interaction, supporting exchange, and acquiring information, the dehumanizing effect of physical distance can create a potential for increased insensitivity and negativity in social relationships (Antonucci, 2017). The impact of technology is more pronounced for older people as they enjoy spending their leisure time with friends and family, which contributes to their well-being (Antonucci and Akiyama, 1995). Older people are also more inclined to turn to family, particularly children and spouses in times of need (Ibid). This requires attention as the status of elders is witnessing a decline in society owing to the growing disrespect, isolation, and helplessness of the elderly (Antonucci et al., 2017). Because older people often provide back more than what they receive from children (Wiemers et al., 2016), a lack of social support can have a significant negative impact on health and well-being, besides increasing nursing home placement if the older people don’t have a confidante to share intimate feelings. Therefore, social support and protection from isolation assume importance for the welfare of the elderly population.

Advances in communication technology and social media offer new ways for older adults to establish social connectedness with friends and family (Czaja, 2017). Including technology in the regular lifestyle helps older adults manage health conditions better (Ibid:4). The evolution of social interaction, from in-person meetings to virtual meetings on social media platforms, has increased the participation of older adults in electronic forms of communication and social media. Moreover, the increased migration and mobility of young adults have led to less proximate family networks, thereby creating barriers to support exchanges and contact (Antonucci et al., 2017). Therefore, despite the lower likelihood of adopting new technologies, older adults may be motivated to do so to sustain and enrich intergenerational ties with children and grandchildren through social media or smartphones (Ibid). The inverse relationship between geographical proximity and in-person contact necessitates the adoption of new communication technologies by older people to overcome barriers of distance for developing meaningful ties with the younger generation. This increased contact between the older and the younger generations could foster a sense of solidarity and closeness that results in a more fulfilling relationship (Ibid:5). Delello and McWhorter (2017) corroborate this by finding older adults in a retirement community using iPads to facilitate closer family relationships and greater connectedness with the overall society. Moreover, immigrants leaving their homeland at a young age also depend on information and communication technology to strengthen adaptation in the host country as they age. Hunter (2015) found that African immigrants living in France who opted to stay back in the host country after their retirement were primarily those whose attachments to France were reinforced by the communication technologies, which also helped them to stay connected with family back home and create a stronger identity, leading to enhancement of quality of life.

Another interesting trend observed in technology-facilitated social interactions is the growth of online dating by older adults using social media and dating websites. The preference of older adults to use technology to make new connections and meet new people for new social interactions presents a remarkable shift in the way older people form connections and convene as a social group.

Few caveats exist, however. Higher levels of telephonic and electronic contact have been found to promote negative interactions in some cases as a lack of personal touch can lead to negativity because of an inability to perceive real-time reactions. Moreover, more technologically proficient young individuals may grow frustrated with their older generations’ struggle to communicate using new technologies, thereby eroding the quality of social interaction and relationships (Antonucci et al., 2017: 5).

Moreover, social media has led to a decrease in in-person social interactions among the youth, which can lead to a higher degree of perceived social isolation. Frequent exposure to highly curated and unrealistic portrayals of people’s lives on social media can make a person feel comparatively more socially isolated from people living happier lives. Primack et al. (2017) found linear associations between youth’s increased social media usage and perceived isolation. Despite expanding an individual’s circle of acquaintances and strengthening old and existing friendships through online interaction, social media may displace more authentic social experiences that make people feel more connected with their society (Ibid: 17). It can be inferred that digital technology has shaped the quality of social interactions differently for the younger and older generations.

Building culturally and socially inclusive technology

The anthropological and sociological implications of technology necessitate the development of inclusive technological solutions that contribute to human flourishing across all age groups, cultures, countries, and languages. A suitable way forward is to understand the implications of technology directly from the users and study the intersection of individual cultures and technology from the perspective of the subjects. Ethnography emerges as a methodological tool for studying the social and human aspects of engineering.

Role of ethnography as a methodological tool

Ethnography is a qualitative research method used in social and behavioral sciences, involving observations and interviews to understand how societies and individuals function. It is a branch of anthropology that studies individual cultures from the subject’s perspective. Ethnography can provide an in-depth understanding of the socio-technological realities surrounding engineering practices and investigate social and human aspects of technological solutions (Sharp et al., 2016). Experiments with ethnography in technology use a participatory design approach, where technology users play an active role in shaping the software or hardware design, and mutual learning between users and designers happens to generate coherent visions for a product. Moreover, technology practitioners can use ethnographic techniques to develop contextual designs (Ibid) that are socially and culturally acceptable to users. The application of ethnographic techniques includes conducting formal and informal primary interviews with technology users to understand their sentiments and feedback on the technological product. Moreover, participants are observed in a location warranted by the research question and observations are noted objectively during the field research. Using transcription of interviews and insights from archival data, past failures of the product and the basic technological needs of users can be understood better, which can help create more inclusive technological solutions (Jesper and Finn, 1997).

Cultural inclusive technology design

Culture must take a central role in a cross-cultural design process and call for localization of the salient features of a technological product. One way for localization is to use cultural markers in interface design elements, such as colors, spatial organizations, symbols, etc. for people of diverse cultures and age groups to increase product usability and suitability for the users (Huatong, 2012). The Culturally Localized User Experience (CLUE) model integrates action and meaning through a cyclical design process to make technology both usable and meaningful for local users. It posits that technology designed for CLUE mediates not only instrumental practices but also social meanings, ensuring that technology resonates deeply with the cultural context of its users (Ibid). Ethnographic research methods can help to understand the cultural contexts of various design elements and user experience features, which can then be customized for the needs of different user groups. Software and hardware technologies must be adapted to fit local languages, customs, and norms. This includes translating interfaces and ensuring that symbols and icons are culturally appropriate. Cultural contextualization also requires implementing techniques to identify and mitigate unintended biases in AI algorithms by using diverse datasets.

Socially inclusive technology design

Product designers and software engineers need to understand the age-specific needs of people, given their different physical and cognitive capabilities. For older people, interfaces must be designed with larger text, simple navigation, and voice assistance to reduce reliance on the younger generation for repeated guidance on the usage of apps. Providing multiple language options to cater to diverse linguistic needs can help to include diverse languages. An example of a language-inclusive technology solution is Krutrim AI, which has text-generation capabilities for 22 scheduled languages of India, including English, thereby eliminating the dominance of the English language in OpenAI’s chatbot, ChatGPT. Technologies that strengthen social bonds and societal harmony must gain precedence in development and deployment over technologies that foster discord and hinder human flourishing. Responsible technology is influenced by people, technology, and society/environment. Key principles include avoiding unconscious bias and improving inclusivity (people), integrating ethics into product development (technology), and setting goals for inclusive growth and diverse values (society/environment). This approach acknowledges the complex, interconnected nature of these factors, emphasizing that technology serves as a medium linking organizations, individuals, and the physical environment. Figure 1 demonstrates the elements of sociocultural inclusive technology design.

Figure 1. Elements of a socially and culturally inclusive technology design

How will Tomorrow pan out?

The adoption of technology in all walks of life and across diverse sectors has made its influence felt on the culture and social structures shaped over several generations. Mass media has facilitated the homogenization, equilibrium, and reduction of cultural and linguistic disparities globally. Social media, in particular, has transformed communication by introducing abbreviations and visual elements, enriching conversations among the youth. However, this evolution also hinders digital communication between different generations. The asymmetry in ICT accessibility across various socioeconomic groups exacerbates existing inequalities in education and employment, leading to heightened poverty and isolation among marginalized communities, thereby increasing societal discord and division. Technology has significantly influenced religion by preserving religious knowledge and expanding access to religious services. Yet, it has also disrupted conservative religious foundations and introduced diverse beliefs, resulting in the growing disaffiliation of youth from their native faiths. In education, technology enables greater collaboration through virtual platforms but also fosters social isolation among the youth. Latest communication technologies have improved interactions between older and younger generations, impacting the mental and psychological well-being of the elderly. Considering technology’s multifaceted impact on societal interactions and collaboration, ethnographic techniques are essential. These methods help understand the ethos of various populations and inform the creation of culturally and socially inclusive technologies that promote human flourishing. Ethnography can guide the development of technology that respects and integrates diverse cultural and social contexts, ensuring its broader acceptance and positive societal impact.

Data availability: No new data were generated or analyzed in support of this research.

Conflict of interest: The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements: Not applicable.

Statements and declarations: Not applicable.

Ethical considerations: Not applicable.

References

1. Karakoulas D and Theologou K (2023) The Crucial Impact of Technology on Language and Culture. American Journal of Sciences and Engineering Research 6(6).
2. Combi M (2016) Cultures and Technology: An Analysis of Some of the Changes in Progress— Digital, Global and Local Culture. In: Borowiecki KJ, Forbes N and Fresa A (eds) Cultural Heritage in a Changing World. Cham: Springer. pp.3-15. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-29544-2_1.
3. Natsir N, Aliah N, Zulkhaeriyah, Amiruddin, and Esmianti F (2023) The Impact of Language Changes Caused by Technology and Social Media. Language Literacy: Journal of Linguistics, Literature, and Language Teaching 7(1): 115-124. DOI: 10.30743/ll.v7i1.7021.
4. Qassrawi RM and Samih MAK (2023) Benefits of Facebook usage (as a web 2.0 application) in foreign language instruction in higher education: A meta-analysis study. Cogent Arts and Humanities 10(1). DOI: 10.1080/23311983.2023.2185447.
5. Hjarvard S (2004) The globalization of language: How the media contribute to the spread of English and the emergence of medialects. Nordicom Review 25: 75-97.
6. Lévy P (1997) Cyberculture. Rapport au Conseil de l’Europe. Paris: Éditions Odile Jacob.
7. López-Aguado S, Gutiérrez-Provecho L, Diaz JQ and Llamas JLG (2022) Social exclusion and the digital divide. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Society 18(3): 74-82.
8. Molala TS and Makhubele JC (2021) Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews 9(4): 194-201. DOI: 10.18510/hssr.2021.9427.
9. Riviș-Tipei I (2023) The Role of Religion in Contemporary Society –Mapping a Research Itinerary. RAIS Journal for Social Sciences 7(2). DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10206899.
10. Zhao F (2019) The Impact of Communication Technology on Religion. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research
11. Bingaman KA (2023) Religion in the Digital Age: An Irreversible Process. Special Issue Digital and Spatial Studies of Religions, Religions 14(1): 108. DOI: 10.3390/rel14010108.
12. McClure PK (2017) Tinkering with technology and religion in the digital age: The effects of Internet use on religious belief, behavior, and belonging. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 56: 481–497.
13. Opade OF (2023) Perspectives on Digital Evangelism: Exploring the Intersection of Technology and Faith. African Journal of Culture, History, Religion and Traditions 6(2): 15-24. DOI: 10.52589/AJCHRT-IDAP2P2M.
14. Kwon K, Han D, Bang E and Armstrong S (2010) Feelings of isolation and coping mechanism in online learning environments: A case study of Asian international students. The International Journal of Learning Annual Review 17(2).
15. Hrastinski S (2008) Asynchronous and synchronous e-learning: A study of asynchronous and synchronous e-learning methods discovered that each supports different purposes. EDUCAUSE Quarterly 31(4): 51–55.
16. Falloon G (2012) Inside the virtual classroom: Student perspectives on affordances and limitation. Journal of Open, Flexible and Distance Learning 16(1): 108-126. DOI: 10.61468/jofdl.v16i1.92.
17. Bryan J, Moore‐Thomas C, Havlik S, Kim J, Lin C and Na G (2012) The Effects of School Bonding on High School Seniors’ Academic Achievement. Journal of Counseling & Development 90(4). DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6676.2012.00058.x.
18. Baysal EA and Ocak G (2021) Teachers’ views on student misbehaviors during online courses. Problems of Education in the 21st Century 79(3). DOI: 10.33225/pec/21.79.343.
19. Antonucci T, Ajrouch KJ and Manadel JA (2017) Social Relations and Technology: Continuity, Context, and Change. Innovation in Aging 1(3): 1–9. DOI: 10.1093/geroni/igx029.
20. Antonucci TC and Akiyama H (1995) Convoys of social relations: Family and friendships within a life span context. In: Blieszner R and Bedford VH (eds) Handbook of aging and the family. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp.355–372.
21. Wiemers EE, Seltzer JA, Schoen RF, Hotz VJ and Bianchi SM (2016) The Generational Structure of U.S. Families and Their Intergenerational Transfers. PSC Research Report 16: 867.
22. Czaja, SJ (2017) The potential role of technology in supporting older adults. Public Policy and Aging Report 27: 44–48. DOI: 10.1093/ppar/prx006.
23. Hunter A (2015) Empowering or impeding return migration? ICT, mobile phones, and older migrants’ communications with home. Global Networks 15: 485–502. DOI: 10.1111/glob.12091.
24. Delello, JA and McWhorter, RR (2017) Reducing the digital divide: Connecting older adults to iPad technology. Journal of Applied Gerontology: The Official Journal of the Southern Gerontological Society 36: 3–28. DOI: 10.1177/0733464815589985.
25. Primack, B, Shensa A, Sidani J, Whaite E, Lin L, Rosen D, Colditz J, Radovic A and Miller E (2017) Social Media Use and Perceived Social Isolation Among Young Adults in the U.S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2017.01.010.
26. Sharp H, Dittrich Y, de Souza CRB (2016) The Role of Ethnographic Studies in Empirical Software Engineering. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering 42(8): 786-804, DOI: 10.1109/TSE.2016.2519887.
27. Jesper S and Finn K (1997) Using Ethnography in Contextual Design. Communications of the ACM 40: 82-88. DOI: 10.1145/256175.256190
28. Huatong S (2012) Cross-Cultural Technology Design: Creating Culture-Sensitive Technology for Local Users. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199744763.001.0001
29. Thoughtworks (2023) Responsible technology: a stimulus for a fairer society. Available at: https://www.thoughtworks.com/en-in/insights/articles/responsible-technology (accessed 26 May 2024)